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Fundamentals of gene science

Timeline of Genetic Eras

Era of historic discoveriesX

1880’s

Era of transmission geneticsX

1900 - 1940’s

Era of molecular geneticsX

1950 - 1960’s

Era of DNA technologyX

1970 - 1980’s

Era of application of genomicsX

1990 - Present

Era of historic discoveries

  • 1866
    Mendel publishes his paper on inheritance. Ideas not recognized for 34years.
  • 1869
    Friedrich Miescher identifies DNA in cells and calls it ‘nuclein’. The significance is not appreciated for 70 years.
  • 1881
    Albrecht Kossel identifies the 4 chemical compositions of DNA – adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T)

Era of transmission genetics

  • 1904
    Walter Sutton & Theodor Boveri propose chromosome theory of heredity after finding chromosomes occur in matched pairs one inherited from each parent
  • 1905
    William Bateson coined the word “Genetics” to describe the study of heredity
  • 1909
    Wilhelm Johannsen coins word ‘gene’ to describe the fundamental part of heredity
  • 1911
    Thomas Morgan’s experiments on fruit fly show existence of sex chromosome and that genes are located on chromosomes
  • 1918
    Ronald Fischer (Eugenicist) proposes that common diseases might be caused by a genetic susceptibility to environmental factors and subsequently develops the calculation for predicting heritability.
  • 1920
    Scientist become aware that DNA and protein are major chemical components of chromosomes and proposed they are the mechanism for inheriting characteristics
  • 1944
    DNA is connected to inheritance of traits

Era of molecular genetics

  • 1950
    Erwin Chargaff works out the pairing pattern of the DNA chemical structure – A always pairs with T and C always pairs with G
  • 1953
    Crick & Watson describe the ‘double helix’ structure of DNA
  • 1955
    Joe Hin Tjio identifies the exact number of chromosomes as 46 in a human cell
  • 1956
    DNA is made artificially
  • 1958
    Meseleson & Stahl show that new DNA is made by copying from the old DNA
  • 1966
    Nirenberg & colleagues crack the genetic code: The chemical code (ATCG) which determines order of the proteins that are made up of 20 combinations of amino acids
  • 1969
    First single gene is isolated

Era of DNA technology

  • 1973
    Genetic engineering begins
  • 1977
    DNA sequencing technology is developed by Fred Sanger & colleagues
  • 1978
    Insulin is the first human gene cloned
  • 1982
    Insulin is the first genetically engineered drug that is approved. GenBank database is formed by National Institute of Health (NIH) for scientist to submit DNA sequence data
  • 1984
    Alec Jeffreys discovers technique for genetic fingerprinting now used in forensic science
  • 1985
    Kary Mullis develops a technique (Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR) to copy DNA from a small sample
  • 1986
    Approval of first genetically engineered vaccine for humans – Hepatitis B
  • 1988
    The Human Genome project begins. The two goals are to map the location of the genes and determine the sequence of the DNA.

Era of application of genomics

  • 1990
    The formal launch of Human Genome Project (HGP). The first human gene experiment takes place and gene therapy and genetically modified foods commences.
  • 1991
    One of the inherited genes involved in the risk of breast cancer and ovarian cancer identified – BRAC1 gene (located on chromosome 17)
  • 1995
    Steve Fodor develops a technique called GeneChip that helped build DNA sequences for screening. These could then be matched to available DNA sequence in gene databases for diagnostic purposes e.g. breast cancer gene.
  • 1997
    The 1st cloning of a mammal – Dolly the Sheep by Ian Wilmut & colleagues
  • 1999
    Chromosome 22 is the first human chromosome that is sequenced as a part of the HGP
  • 2000
    The 1st draft of the human genome announced. Also chromosome 21 sequenced
  • 2001
    Scientist successfully clone a human embryo for therapeutic use of its nerve and tissues.The 1st working draft of the human genome published in ‘Science’ and ‘Nature’
  • 2003
    Human Genome mapped and so began the challenge to determine the function of estimated 30,000 genes
  • 2005
    Technology for DNA sequencing for next generation launched making it faster to read DNA
  • 2007
    Personal genomes tests offered directly to consumers giving estimates of individual risks for a range of diseases and conditions e.g. 23andMe
  • 2009
    The first comprehensive analysis of cancer genomes is published
  • 2010
    Wellcome Trust launches UK10K which aims to compare genomes of 4000 healthy volunteers with those of 6000 people living with diseases of suspected genetic cause.UK Biobank a major national health resource reached its target of recruiting 500,000 volunteers aged between 40-69 years from across the country (England, Scotland & Wales) to help scientist with medical research projects.
  • 2013
    US Supreme court rules that naturally occurring DNA cannot be patented
  • 2015
    3 scientists win noble prize for discovery of DNA repair. Understanding this mechanism is considered to advance therapeutic measures to help repair DNA errors that cause disease.

Human Genome Project (1993 – 2003)

The Project’s major objective was to develop a detailed map of the location of genes in the human chromosome and to sequence the DNA (chemical structure).

A worldwide collaboration largely funded by public sector money from the USA and the Sanger Institute UK.

The DNA sequencing was carried out by 20 biotechnology centres including China, France, Germany, UK, Japan and USA.

It revolutionised the study of genetics and development of biotechnology.

 

Basics of our genetic make-up

genetic-make-up
Only 0.2% of all human DNA differs between individuals; in other words, people are 99.8% the same.

A staggering 97% of all human DNA has no known function.

 

Understanding Research Terminology

Expand All

What is Heritability?

Heritability – is the contribution of genetic differences for a particular trait e.g. heritability for height is around 90%. It means that most of the height difference among individuals is due to the genetic differences.

What is a Phenotype?

Phenotype is a physical or behavioural characteristic of an individual that is influenced by genes and environment such as height, eye colour, hair colour, or blood group. It is these expressed or visible traits and measurements that are collected by scientist for research analysis.

What is a Genotype?

Genotype refers to the genetic make-up of a cell (letters of the DNA) containing instructions. It is determined by employing biotechnology methods called ‘genotyping’ to see which genes are present on the different versions of the same gene inherited from each parent (these different versions are called alleles).

What is an Allele?

Different versions of the same gene are called alleles and they can either be recessive or dominant. An individual can have the same (homozygous) allele or two different (heterozygous) allele’s, one inherited from each parent. For example, the gene for eye colour has an allele that codes for brown eye colour (dominant) and an allele that codes for blue eye colour (recessive). Therefore, both recessive alleles are needed to give blue eye colour whereas only one copy of the dominant allele is needed to give brown eyes.

What is the difference between genotyping and sequencing?

Genotyping is the technical process used for determining genetic make-up of an Individual’s DNA profile. Researchers examine differences in a selection of DNA to understand disease variation.

DNA sequencing is the mapping of our genetic information in greater detail to determine the exact sequence of a certain length of DNA. This technology is being used to identify rarer genetic variations which may be strongly associated with multiple conditions and a person’s susceptibility to developing a wide range of diseases.

What is Genetic Predisposition?

A genetic predisposition (sometimes also called genetic susceptibility) is an increased likelihood of developing a particular disease based on a person’s genetic makeup. A genetic predisposition results from specific inherited genetic variations.

What is Genetic variant?

Genetic variation refers to genetic differences both within and among populations.

Methods of Research at the DTR (TwinsUK)

Twin volunteers take part in our research by attending twin visits, completing questionnaires and through donating biological samples either by post or at the twin visit. Our researchers use this information to study how our genes and the environment influence diseases and ageing. There are a several different ways to study health and ageing.

 

What sorts of information do we collect?

We collect more than 10,000 pieces of information at twin visits and through questionnaires. A lot of the information we collect is from more than one point in time, which means it is very useful for studying how we change as we age.

 

Variable Types

We collect more than 10,000 pieces of information at twin visits and through questionnaires. A lot of the information we collect is from more than one point in time, which means it is very useful for studying how we change as we age.

This information is then used by researchers to study the genetic and environmental factors associated with complex diseases and ageing. There are a number of different approaches to studying these fields of health and ageing.

Biochemical measures
Blood count (†Haemoglobin, WCC) Blood sugar levels (†Glucose, Insulin) Fats (†Total Cholesterol, Apolipoprotein A1)
Liver function (†Total Bilirubin, Albumin) Kidney function (†Uric acid, Creatinine) Bone marker (†Vitamin D25OH)
Electrolytes (†Potassium, Chloride) Blood clotting factors Salivary enzymes (Amylase)
Metal detection Glycans Antibodies (IgE)

 

Physical measures
Anthropometric measures Whole body scan (visceral fat) Blood pressure
Grip strength Bone mineral density Lung function
Heart function(ECG, cardiac ultrasound) Eye test Hearing test
Pain assessment Cognitive function Physical performance
Allergy test

This information is then used by researchers to study the genetic and environmental factors associated with complex diseases and ageing. There are a number of different approaches to studying these fields of health and ageing.

Self reported measures
Health Status & History Behavioural & Personality Traits, Mental Health Environmental & Socio-economic factors
Respiratory system (†asthma) Personality (Big five, optimism) Diet
Cardiology (heart) Depression Alcohol
Gastrointestinal (†IBS) Anxiety Smoking
Neurological (†memory) Eating disorders Geography
Psychiatry Mental health (SF36, GHQ) Pollution
Oncology (cancer) Education
Rheumatological (†OA) Employment
Dermatology (skin) Socioeconomic status
Ophthalmology (eyes) Sexuality
Hearing Marital Status
Dental Family Structure
Endocrinology (†diabetes) Family history of disease
Urology (bladder and urinary system)
Nephrology (kidneys)
Obstetric and gynaecological (pregnancy and women’s health information)
Musculoskeletal (†back pain)
Allergy
Surgery
Medication
Immunology
General pain
Sexual function
Self-reported health

This information is then used by researchers to study how genetics and the environment influence complex diseases and ageing. There are several different approaches to studying health and ageing.

Our research methods
Epigenetics
Genetics
Glycomics
Human Microbiome
Metabolomics
Nutriomics

OMICS

Using information from thousands of twins, we are extending our research using other ‘omics’ approaches. We are studying proteins (proteomics), how the genetic messenger molecule RNA is produced by the genome (transcriptomics), and how the immune system controls itself and responds to microbes (immunomics).

Glossary

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
  • Alleles

    Different versions of the same gene are called alleles. They can either be recessive or dominant. So for any given gene an individual can have the same (homozygous) allele or two different (heterozygous) allele’s, one inherited from each parent.

  • Chromosomes

    There are 23 pairs of chromosomes located in the nucleus of each cell of our body inherited from each of our parent’s. They are made up of genes and these consist of a sequence of DNA.

  • Dexa

    DEXA stands for 'dual energy x-ray absorptiometry'. It is a test that measures the density of bones by calculating a score of the average density of the bone according to your age and your population. A low score indicates that the bone is less dense than it should be. This loss in bone density makes you more prone to fractures.

  • Dizygotic

    Non-identical twins’ also known as fraternal or dizygotic (DZ) twins are the result of two separate eggs becoming fertilised by two sperm, resulting in two completely distinct pregnancies in the womb at the same time. On average, these twins will share half (50%) of their genes, just like any other siblings. Two thirds of twins are non-identical and may be same sex or male/female pair. Non-identical twins always have two placentas, although the placentas may appear to be fused into one.

  • DNA

    DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) has as structure like a ladder all twisted up in what is called a ‘double-helix’. It is made up of 4 chemical codes represented by letters AGTC - Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) and the arrangement of these letters is what acts like an instruction manual for the growth and development of our body

  • DNA Sequencing

    DNA sequencing is the mapping of our genetic information in greater detail using biotechnology techniques.

  • Epigenetic

    Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in the function of how the genome works that occurs without any physical changes in the DNA sequence.

  • Fraternal Twins

    Non-identical twins’ also known as fraternal or dizygotic (DZ) twins are the result of two separate eggs becoming fertilised by two sperm, resulting in two completely distinct pregnancies in the womb at the same time. On average, these twins will share half (50%) of their genes, just like any other siblings. Two thirds of twins are non-identical and may be same sex or male/female pair. Non-identical twins always have two placentas, although the placentas may appear to be fused into one.

  • Gene

    Gene is defined as a basic unit of inheritance that carries a set of instructions.

  • Genetics

    The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.

  • Genetic Propensity

    Genetic propensity is a term used to explain genetic predisposition which influences a physical trait (phenotype) of an individual.

  • Genetic predisposition

    Genetic predisposition (susceptibility) is the increased likelihood of a person developing a particular disease based on their genetic profile.

  • Genotype

    Genotype refers to the genetic make-up of a cell (letters of the DNA) containing instructions from each parent.

  • Genotyping

    Genotyping is the technical process used for determining genetic make-up of an individual‘s DNA profile.

  • Glycomics

    Glycomics is the comprehensive study of glycomes (the entire complement of sugars, whether free or present in more complex molecules of an organism), including genetic, physiologic and pathologic.

  • Heritability

    Heritability is the contribution of genetic differences to observed difference among individuals for a particular trait in a particular population.

  • Human Genome

    A detailed map of the location of genes in the human chromosome and the sequence (chemical structure) of the DNA.

  • Identical Twins

    Identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins occur when a single fertilised egg splits into two after conception. This happens around the time the fertilised egg is becoming implanted in the womb. These twins will share all (100%) of their genes. Only one third of all twins are identical and these pairs are always of the same sex. Monozygotic twins may have one shared placenta or two separate placentas or two fused into one.

  • Microbiome

    Microbiome is the medical term used to describe the bacterial organisms that live naturally in and on our body.

  • Metabolomics

    Metabolomics is the scientific study of chemical processes involving metabolites such as sugars and fats, in the cells.

  • Mirror Image Twins

    Approx 25% of Identical twins can appear different in a fascinating way - they may exhibit mirror-image features such as opposite hair whorls, hair partings or opposite dominant hands and/or feet.

  • Mitochondrial DNA

    Another place where DNA is found is in the mitochondria; this unique DNA codes for mitochondrial proteins that convert the energy from food into a form that cells can use. Mitochondria largely comes from the mother via her egg.

  • Monozygotic

    Identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins occur when a single fertilised egg splits into two after conception. This happens around the time the fertilised egg is becoming implanted in the womb. These twins will share all (100%) of their genes. Only one third of all twins are identical and these pairs are always of the same sex. Monozygotic twins may have one shared placenta or two separate placentas or two fused into one.

  • Non-identical Twins

    Non-identical twins’ also known as fraternal or dizygotic (DZ) twins are the result of two separate eggs becoming fertilised by two sperm, resulting in two completely distinct pregnancies in the womb at the same time. On average, these twins will share half (50%) of their genes, just like any other siblings. Two thirds of twins are non-identical and may be same sex or male/female pair. Non-identical twins always have two placentas, although the placentas may appear to be fused into one.

  • Nutriomics

    Nutriomics. is the study of how diet affects many other processes in our bodies.

  • Omics

    Omics refers to the collective technologies used to explore the roles, relationships, and actions of the various types of molecules that make up the cells of an organism.

  • Phenotype

    Phenotype is a physical or behavioural characteristic of an individual that is influenced by genes and environment such as height, eye colour, or hair colour.

  • Polar Body Twins

    Also known as half identical twins. Sometimes before conception occurs a single unfertilised egg splits into two and is then fertilised by separate sperm. It is not known how many twins fall into this category but on average they share 75% of their genes.

  • Zygosity

    Zygosity is a term used to explain whether you are an identical or non-identical twin and depends on whether you share half or all your genes with your twin.

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